Abstracts and Excerpts

Unless otherwise stated, abstracts and citations are from ERIC

Using Scholarship To Improve Practice

Teaching on Solid Ground: Using Scholarship To Improve Practice.
This collection of 15 essays is designed to help improve college instruction through reflection that results in better practice, to make teaching more student-centered, and to further a more connected view of teaching and learning. It includes: (1) "Why Scholarship Is the Bedrock of Good Teaching" (Maryellen Weimer); (2) "Teaching and Today's College Students" (M. Lee Upcraft); (3) "Making the Transition to College" (Patrick T. Terenzini and others); (4) "Student Motivation from the Teacher's Perspective" (Raymond P. Perry and others); (5) "Collaborative Learning: Creating Knowledge with Students" (Roberta S. Matthews); (6) "Assessing Student Involvement in Learning" (Robert C. Froh and Mark Hawkes); (7) "New Roles for Teachers in Today's Classrooms" (Susan B. Miller); (8) "Planning and Developing Effective Courses" (George L. Geis); (9) "Assignments That Promote and Integrate Learning" (Joseph Lowman); (10) "Feedback for Enhanced Teaching and Learning" (Robert J. Menges and William C. Rando); (11) "How Research on Learning Strengthens Instruction" (Marilla D. Svinicki and others); (12) "What College Teachers Need To Know" (Sarah M. Dinham); (13) "Fostering Instructional Vitality and Motivation" (Charles J. Walker and others); (14) "Supporting Diversity through Campus Culture" (William G. Tierney and Estela Mara Bensimon); and (15) "Using Assessment To Improve Instruction" (Trudy W. Banta). Each essay contains a reference list. (MDM)

Menges,-Robert-J., Ed.; Weimer,-Maryellen, Ed. Teaching on Solid Ground: Using Scholarship To Improve Practice. National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, University Park, PA. 1996. Jossey-Bass Inc., 350 Sansome St., San Francisco, CA 94104 ($34.95). 406 p.

• Introduction to Studying Diversity
  

Introduction to Studying Diversity: Lessons from the Field Five issues that emerge in institutional research when studying diversity on campus are identified: (1) the researcher is part of the change process; (2) in framing research questions, focus on the institution; (3) combining qualitative and quantitative methods can provide greater insight; (4) diversity touches all institutional elements and constituents; and (5) communication and process are central elements. (MSE)

Smith,-Daryl-G.; And-Others. Introduction to Studying Diversity: Lessons from the Field. 1994. New-Directions-for-Institutional-Research; n81 p1-8 Spr 1994.

Racial and Ethnic Diversity in Higher Education
This anthology contains 52 papers on racial and ethnic diversity in higher education and is designed to reflect the collective ideas of those who teach in this area. Generally the manuscripts present ways of observing and experiencing racial and ethnic difference in American higher education institutions. Articles in part I titled "Racial/Ethnic Diversity in Higher Education History," demonstrate how a history of exclusion has influenced past and present outcomes for people of color in higher education. Part II titled, "Curriculum Teaching, and Learning," contains readings that present a view from the perspective of individuals who have traditionally been excluded in the creation of knowledge presented in the college curriculum. Part III titled, "Students," contains readings on students of color, student retention, the first-year college experience, and socialization experiences. Part IV titled "Faculty," contains articles on faculty experience at four-year colleges. Part V on "Administration, Leadership and Governance," contains papers that address under-representation of racial and ethnic minority group leaders at all levels of higher education. Lastly, part VI, "Research Issues," contains papers that examine different theoretical frameworks to be considered in studying students and faculty. (Most papers contain references.) (JB)

Turner,-Caroline-Sotello-Viernes, Ed.; And-Others. Racial and Ethnic Diversity in Higher Education. ASHE Reader Series.. 1996. Simon and Schuster Custom Publishing, 160 Gould St., Needham Heights, MA 02194 ($55). 634 p.

Connect Agenda for Federal Research To Practice, Advisory Board Advocates Building Knowledge for a Nation of Learners recommends that future federally funded education research focus on issues under seven broad categories, which include: "aligning curriculum, teaching, and assessments toward more analytical thinking; improving teacher training and boosting recruitment and retention; motivating students to learn and take responsibility; preparing increasingly diverse student populations for all aspects of American life; and understanding the nation's changing demographics and what students need to learn to succeed.

The Impact of Diversity on Students
When a campus makes -- and is perceived by its students to make--a significant commitment to diversity, educational gains are made across the entire student body. Student participation in campus diversity initiatives contributes to measurable changes in openness to difference, increased commitment to social justice, as well as to cognitive development and academic success.

These results are explained in The Impact of Diversity on Students a report, recently released by the Association of American Colleges and Universities, which also provides an overview and a critical examination of diversity research literature. The authors ask "What works?" and then provide answers while also explaining the theory and tools available for studying diversity in higher education.

The report shows the progression from initial diversity efforts seeking to help students of color succeed on historically white campuses, to more comprehensive efforts to reevaluate campus climate and the curriculum in order to educate all students for a diverse society. These efforts include issues such as gender, race, and religion in classroom and campus programming -- but the report notes there are underlying tensions associated with these efforts. Consequently, "some of these efforts which are successful for targeted student populations are also subject to the most reaction by some majority populations."It would be surprising if there were no reaction, since issues such as gender and religion open seemingly "homogenous" campuses to recognizing difference. But the response to these reactions can open opportunities for learning about diversity rather than simply prefacing denials of diversity, or claims that it has already been addressed.

In order to assess the impact of diversity studies upon students' learning, Smith and her colleagues refer to a body of material available on gender and ethnic diversity, but note that much less is available on students of nontraditional ages and other minority groups, such as disabled or immigrant students. The report then emphasizes, "success in one area does not insure success in another."

The report exposes myths. If you overhear references to "self-segregation" on campus, pay attention to those who connect this pattern with white students. They probably have more than a passing acquaintance with diversity issues. Findings in the "Impact" study explain that, rather than being "a pattern typical of students of color, [self-segregation] is in fact a pattern described by white students."

Smith notes that recent programs focus on institutional change, often with the student-oriented assumptions that the institution will become able to educate a diverse group of students or will provide all students with the skills and experiences necessary to become leaders in a diverse society. But they note that presently people on campus -- not just students, but administrators and faculty members --have not always been part of the diverse communities which create the context for today's campuses. With this in mind the researchers note that there is more literature available assessing the impact upon institutions rather than its impact on student learning.

Both of these changes -- those concerning student learning, and those regarding institutional change -- are important for researchers to evaluate, while the process of making decisions and goals is articulated. This is also crucial for institutions if they want to modify existing programs and continue to seek program funding. Attention to issues of diversity is, in the authors' words, "a long term enterprise," and, without continual evaluation, sustaining these initiatives and the individual energy they require becomes more difficult. As campuses create these initiatives, others must also understand them since their context, in this case the campus, will influence both student and staff definitions of -- and reactions to -- the programs. This correlation becomes increasingly evident in evaluations.

While student preparation and readiness are part of many research agendas, the studies which Smith has reviewed return again and again to overall institutional factors and their impact upon student success, such as retention and recruiting.

Beyond reviewing existing research and offering recommendations, Impact highlights the research which needs to follow, such as cross-institutional studies showing how diversity efforts are negotiated into practice on campuses. Other recommendations are made in the report, which are caveat and encouragement towards further research on diversity and learning. While the field of diversity impact literature is expanding, the authors note that many studies are for "internal consumption," or conference presentation, and may never reach audiences who could benefit from it the most. (LB-AAC&U)

Smith, Daryl. The Impact of Diversity on Students. The Association of American Colleges and Universities, 1996. (http://www.aacu.org/Publications/ordering.html)

The Equity Education: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering
This volume includes 10 reports that present findings and recommendations for advancing women in science, mathematics and engineering. Critical issues facing women in these disciplines are addressed, including demographic myths and realities at various educational levels; the educational pipeline for girls and women; involvement in education and careers as they relate to diversity, along lines of race/ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, disability, and age; institutional norms, values and structures; barriers to success at the career stage; effectiveness of current intervention and curriculum strategies; and the relationship between public policies and institutional change. New findings about the barriers facing women at every level of education and employment are examined, from K-12 educational experiences to studies of women scientists' employment and success in industry. These findings suggest that the most significant barriers are institutional, not personal. The authors offer suggestions for developing future research and policy, describe how to build more effective programs, and outline how to incorporate evaluation and accountability into these programs from the outset. (JPB)

Davis,-Cinda-Sue; And-Others. The Equity Education. Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. 1996; ISBN-0-7879-0213-6; Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers, 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104 ($36.95; bulk discounts available to corporations, professional associations and other organizations). 353 p.

Providing Guides

Crucial Practices for Diversity: A Project Report
In an effort to improve educational institutions' recruitment and retention of undergraduate students of color, particularly members of under represented groups, a self-assessment guide was produced by a group of large public research universities. Common patterns of challenges and opportunities at the various institutions yielded nine crucial practices: leadership, vision, diversity, centralization versus decentralization, communication, data, accountability, coordination of recruitment and retention, and commitment capital. This publication contains a discussion of these nine practices and describes how to apply them appropriately and effectively to virtually any contemporary campus in the United States.

External review teams add value to the review process, although colleges and universities should work to utilize the talents and dedication of campus leaders to bring about change. In doing so, however, it must be possible for campus leaders who give their input to do so without jeopardizing their own professional futures. The goal of enlightenment must lay not in individual programs but in underlying values, structures and processes that shape the culture of an institution. Understanding these values, structures and processes can contribute to an enhanced environment for under represented students, and ultimately, to a more sustaining environment for all members of the learning community. (KW)

Nelsen,-Anne-Kusener; And-Others.. Crucial Practices for Diversity. A Project Report. Alliance for Undergraduate Education. 1994. Alliance for Undergraduate Education, 405 Old Main, University Park, PA

Assessing Diversity on Campus: A Resource Guide
An annotated list cites reports, books, and other resources for institutional research into campus diversity. It includes studies undertaken by individual institutions, often including assessment instruments, organizational resources, books and articles, and electronic mail lists.

Levitan,-Thomas; Wolf,-Lisa-E. Assessing Diversity on Campus: A Resource Guide. 1994. New-Directions-for-Institutional-Research; n81 p87-100 Spr 1994.

Diversity Works: The Emerging Picture of How Students Benefit Drawing on over 300 research studies, this publication presents the most comprehensive overview published to-date on the impact of diversity initiatives on students. Using a multidimensional model of diversity and surveying research in such areas as the success of underrepresented populations of students, campus climate and intergroup relations, curriculum and institutional transformation, this report provides compelling evidence for the effectiveness of diversity initiatives. It reveals that diversity initiatives are having positive effects on both majority and minority students and are related to student satisfaction, academic success and cognitive development.

Pedagogical Reality
Academics remain deeply uncertain and divided about their role as practitioners of multiculturalism, inclusion and diversity. As teachers of writing, academics try to offer their students the freedom to express themselves, but they continue to puzzle over how they are to integrate and achieve true inclusion in the classroom. A series of informal interviews with college faculty documents more specifically the nature of this troubling confusion. Five main questions were asked, which revealed the following results. First, among faculty there is little consensus about what the terms multiculturalism, inclusion, and diversity mean. Of the respondents, 40% thought the terms were interchangeable. Second, all the respondents agreed that racism and sexism continue to exist among student populations but on a less overt level than in previous decades. Some faculty interviewed expressed a reluctance to respond directly to racism or sexism in the classroom; they prefer to stay neutral in classroom situations. Third, most faculty do not see signs of overt racism in the composition classroom probably because students recognize that it is politically incorrect. Fourth, 53% denied having seen any discrimination on the administrative level. One male professor complained of reverse discrimination; all other complaints came from women or minorities. Fifth, faculty rely primarily on their reading lists to further the goals of multiculturalism, inclusion and diversity. (TB)

Brown,-Brenda-Gabioud. Pedagogical Reality. 1994. 12 p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication (45th, Nashville, TN, March 16-19, 1994).

The Effects of Race and Type of Institution on the College Experiences of Black and White Undergraduate Students Attending 30 Predominantly Black and Predominantly White Colleges and Universities
This study looked at whether white students at predominantly black colleges are as likely as black students at white colleges to report lower grades, less satisfactory relations with faculty, perceptions of accommodation of diversity in the campus environment, and feelings of discrimination. Data consisted of student responses to questionnaires distributed to 7,428 students at 30 institutions. Respondents numbered 4,094. Results suggested that, when student background characteristics are taken into account, race, school type, and their interaction make a difference in the prediction of academic performance, feeling of discrimination, and student perceptions of diversity accommodation. When background characteristics were controlled there was no difference in academic performance between black and white students at black institutions. But with the same controls, at white institutions, blacks earned significantly lower grades. Black students on predominantly white campuses reported higher ratings on feelings of discrimination than did white students on black campuses though such feelings were also reported by white students at predominantly black campuses. While black students on black campuses experienced better relationships with faculty than did black students on white campuses, there was no difference in the quality of faculty-student relationships reported by white students on the two types of campuses. (Contains 27 references.) (JB)

Wells-Lawson,-Marcia-I. The Effects of Race and Type of Institution on the College Experiences of Black and White Undergraduate Students Attending 30 Predominantly Black and Predominantly White Colleges and Universities. 1994. 37 p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 4-8, 1994).

Comparing the Effects of Multiculturalism and Diversity on Minority and White Students' Satisfaction with College
This study examined whether and how an institution of higher education's emphasis on diversity affects students of color differently from white students. Data, which were drawn from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, involved 15,600 students who were freshmen in 1985 and were followed up in 1989 and who identified themselves as belonging to one of the following four groups: African American, Mexican American/Chicano, Asian American, or White. Students who reported high levels of satisfaction with college were those who attended racial/cultural awareness workshops and socialized with someone of a different race/ethnic group. Students from all four groups benefited equally from participating in these workshops. Every group of students was positively affected by faculty's use of instructional methodology that included content on ethnic and racial issues, as well as research or writing addressing women, ethnicity, or race. A college's or university's commitment to increasing their numbers of women and minority faculty and students and commitment to creating a diverse multicultural environment and an appreciation for multiculturalism also had a strong effect on students' satisfaction with college. Environmental measures that demonstrated effects on student satisfaction are also analyzed. (Contains 25 references.) (JDD)

Villalpando,-Octavio Comparing the Effects of Multiculturalism and Diversity on Minority and White Students' Satisfaction with College. ASHE Annual Meeting Paper. 1994. 30 p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education (19th, Tucson, AZ, November 10-13, 1994).

Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the First Year of College
A study of 3,331 college freshmen in 18 institutions investigated the factors influencing their openness to cultural diversity and challenges to their beliefs and values. Results indicated a nondiscriminatory racial environment, on-campus residence, participation in a racial or cultural awareness workshop, and involvement with diverse peers had positive effects on openness/challenge; Greek affiliation had a negative effect. (Author/MSE)

Pascarella,-Ernest-T.; And-Others. Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the First Year of College. 1996. Journal-of-Higher-Education; v67 n2 p174-95 Mar-Apr 1996.

Minorities in Higher Education

This book presents 19 papers on efforts to increase the participation of members of minority groups in higher education. The papers are:

MINORITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Edited by Manuel J. Justiz, Reginald Wilson and Lars G. Bjork

CONTENTS

Contributors, vii

Preface, xv

Introduction, xvii
by Juliet V. Garcia

Chapter 1. Demographic Trends and the Challenges to American Higher Education, 1
by Manuel Justiz

Chapter 2. Three Realities: Minority Life in the United States-The Struggle for Economic Equity, 22
adapted by Don M. Blandin

Chapter 3. Educational Equity and the Problem of Assessment, 44
by Alexander W. Astin

Chapter 4. Minorities and the New Information Technologies: Barriers and Opportunities, 64
by Paul Resta

Chapter 5. Financial Aid Strategies for Improving Minority Student Participation Higher Education, 78
by Arthur Hauptmann and Patricia Smith

Chapter 6. Funding Doctoral Studies for Minorities, 107
by Sara Melendez

Chapter 7. Clearing the Pathway: Improving Opportunities for Minority Students to Transfer, 120
by Laura I. Rendon and Amaury Nora

Chapter 8. The Transfer Function: Building Curricular Roadways Across and Among Higher Education Institutions, 139
by Alison R. Bernstein and Judith S. Eaton

Chapter 9. Hispanic Student Achievement, 151
by Richard Duran

Chapter 10. Progress of Hispanics in American Higher Education, 173
by Alfredo de los Santos Jr. and Anthony Rigual

Chapter 11. The Participation of African Americans in American Higher Education, 195
by Reginald Wilson

Chapter 12. Maintaining the Competitive Tradition, 210
by N. Joyce Payne

Chapter 13. Higher Education Issues in Native American Communities, 239
by Clara Sue Kidwell

Chapter 14. Higher Education Issues in the Asian American Community, 258
by Bob H. Suzuki

Chapter 15. Assessment in Higher Education and the Preparation of Minority Teachers...286
by Manuel Justiz and Marilyn Kameen

Chapter 16. Minorities in Graduate Education: A Need to Regain Lost Momentum, 297
by Mark Clark and Hector Garza

Chapter 17. The Impasse on Faculty Diversity in Higher Education: A National Agenda, 314
by Shirley Vining Brown

Chapter 18. Equity in Higher Education: The State Role, 334
by Patrick M. Callan

Chapter 19. An Optimistic Sense of Possibility, 347
by Frank Newman

Index, 365

White Students Perceive Racism toward Minority Students on Predominantly White Campuses?
This study tested a causal model of influences on white students' perceptions of racism toward minority students on predominantly white college campuses. The study was part of the National Study of Student Learning and utilized a three-wave, longitudinal design. The institutional sample consisted of 11 traditional institutions in 9 states. The study surveyed students before starting their first year of college, after their first year, and after their second year. Of the original 2,137 students who participated in the first survey, 1,200 completed the final survey. Results suggested that white students' background, their attitudes toward diversity, the types of institutions they attended, and their behavior during college all affected their perceptions of racism toward minority students on campus. Students who were more open to diversity before college were more likely to make friends with students of other races and discussed social issues with greater frequency. Significant differences between men and women were found in openness to diversity before college, perhaps reflecting the less favorable attitudes toward diversity among "angry white men" in the broader society during the early 1990s. White students' perceptions were shaped directly and most significantly by their openness to diversity before starting college and by the undergraduate racial mix at the institution they attended. (Contains 45 references.) (JB)

Springer,-Leonard; And-Others. Do White Students Perceive Racism toward Minority Students on Predominantly White Campuses? National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, University Park, PA. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. 1995 31 p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, April 18-22, 1995).

What Have We Learned from the First Year of the National Study of Student Learning?
This paper presents the results of eight analyses based upon data from the National Study of Student Learning (NSSL), a 3-year longitudinal research project begun in 1992 to examine the influence of academic and nonacademic experiences on student learning, student attitudes about learning, student cognitive development, and student persistence. Eighteen four-year and five two-year postsecondary institutions participated in the study, with data collected from a total of 3,840 students. The eight analyses focused on the effects of: (1) two- and four-year colleges on cognitive development; (2) historically black and predominantly white colleges on cognitive development; (3) teacher behavior on cognitive development; (4) first-generation college attendance on cognitive development and attitudes; (5) intercollegiate athletic participation on cognitive development; (6) institutional environment and students' academic and nonacademic experiences on students' development of openness to cultural and racial diversity; (7) Greek affiliation on cognitive development during the first year of college; and (8) in-class and out-of-class experiences on first-year students' critical thinking ability. These analyses found little difference in the cognitive gains made by students attending two-year versus four-year institutions, or historically black versus predominantly white institutions. Other results are presented and discussed. (Contains 40 references.) (MDM)

Pascarella,-Ernest-T.; And-Others. What Have We Learned from the First Year of the National Study of Student Learning? National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, University Park, PA. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. [1995] 28 p.

Excerpted from--Assessment for Excellence: The Philosophy and Practice of Assesment and Evaluation in Higher Education
Alexander Astin on Opportunity and Equity: "Some policy makers prefer to define educational equity in terms of the access concept. These observers would be content to believe that educational equity will be attained when overall enrollments in postsecondary education reach proportionate or near-proportionate representation for ethnic minorities, poor students and other under represented groups. Measured by this standard, the United States, of all the countries in the world, has achieved the greatest degree of equity. If "opportunities" in American higher education were indeed equal, such a gross measure of equity might be acceptable. However, given the great disparities in educational resources and reputations that are associated with the institutional hierarchy, any definition of equity or equality of access must also take into consideration the quality of the opportunity offered. Guaranteeing that opportunities are available for all does not insure equity unless the opportunities themselves are comparable." (198).

This book describes Astin's approach to assessment and the I-E-O model of student outcomes research which takes into account the input of student characteristics at entry, the environment, of institutional characteristics and the student's lived experiences at the institution, and the outcome, of student characteristics at exit. The model is described in detail, with examples from research done at the Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA. Chapters on assessing inputs, environments, and outcomes are included, as are descriptions of how to develop an effective student tracking database for outcomes assessment. Of particular interest is a discussion of equity issues in assessment. The book also contains an appendix describing the statistical procedures for multiple regression and their application to the I-E-O model.

Astin, Alexander. Assesment for Excellence: the Philosophy and Practice of Assesment and Evaluation in Higher Education. American Council on Education and the Oryx Press: Phoenix, Arizona.1993.

Regarding Affirmative Action

The Right Stuff: White Male Perspectives on Merit, Measurement, and Affirmative Action Admissions to Graduate Professional Schools
This exploratory study examines several facets of everyday perspectives on merit and the meritocratic allocation of rewards and opportunities, focusing on race-targeted, affirmative action admissions of Blacks and Latinos to law schools, medical schools, and Master of Business Administration (MBA) programs. Subjects were 32 white, male college students, aged 20 to 35 years, who were in or were considering these fields of study at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Subjects came from working class/blue collar and professional/managerial families of origin. Subjects were asked to consider and discuss the merits of nine different approaches to achieving student-body diversity; three involved quotas or targets. Most striking from the results was the degree of common ground, up and down the policy preference spectrum, among these men of diverse lifestyles and political perspectives. Yet there was substantial disagreement on the nature of professional/managerial merit, how it should be measured, and the salience of merit to the equitable distribution of career opportunities. Of primary concern was the issue of collective utility or the consequences for health care, jurisprudence, economic growth, and the general welfare if those of insufficient capacity were to achieve critical positions in the professions or the business community. Principal issues included whether Blacks and Latinos already enjoy a fair chance to achieve their potentials and how far collective accountability should extend to ensure that they do. Actual responses are included. (Contains 16 references.) (NAV)

Lipson,-Helen-D. The Right Stuff: White Male Perspectives on Merit, Measurement, and Affirmative Action Admissions to Graduate Professional Schools. 1996. 43 p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 8-13, 1996).

Extension Leaders: Moving beyond Affirmative Action to Value Diversity
A survey of 108 extension administrators (85% response) showed only a small number thought diversity was being acknowledged and discussed. Critical needs were how to communicate with and serve diverse populations, use different strengths, develop clear vision, and recruit. Focus groups confirmed the need to recognize the value of multicultural organizations in policies and procedures. (SK)

Ludwig,-Barbara-G. Extension Leaders: Moving beyond Affirmative Action to Value Diversity. 1995. Journal-of-Extension; v33 n5 Oct 1995.

Visible Leadership

Excerpted from--The Uneasy Public Policy Triangle in Higher Education: Quality, Diversity, and Budgetary Efficiency
Maxine Greene in "The Demands of Diversity: Implications for Public Policy:"
"What is silenced, it seems to me, is the swelling talk with regard to what Howard Gardner calls "multiple intelligences" (1983) and how they might be tapped to feed into the "stream of excellence," if excellence is conceived of in a more than monological way. What is set aside is what Clifford Geertz talks of as "a mutually reinforcing network of social understandings" (1983, p.151). This notion derives from the view that today "thought is spectaculary multiple as product and wondrously singular as process," and that it has become important, as never before, to create a "disciplinary matrix" (p.152). Then Geertz writes about what happens when the imagery gets political-- "an uneasiness expressed in a number of not altogether concordant ways: as a fear of particularism, a fear of subjectivism, a fear of idealism, and, of course, summing them all into a sort of intellectualist Grande Peur, the fear of relativism" (p.153). His affirmation of multiplicity and difference, along with his call for reciprocity among distinctive specialists and individuals, makes me see connections between his view and the idea of people coming together in speech and action to create a public space. As Hannah Arendt saw it, "The reality of the public realm relies on the simultaneous presence of innumerable perspectives and aspects in which the common world presents itself and for which no common measurement or denominator can ever be devised....Being seen and heard by others derive their significance from the fact that everybody sees and hears from a different position. This is the meaning of public life" (1958, p.57)? (31).

This excerpt, written by Maxine Greene, can be found in The Uneasy Public Policy Triangle in Higher Education: Quality, Diversity, and Budgetary Efficiency. This collection of essays offers no easy answers as it brings together debates on defining quality and equality in universities. Maxine Greene wrote the third chapter entitled "The Demands of Diversity: Implications for Public Policy." Other chapters in the book include:

Chapter 5. What counts as quality in Higher Education? by Amy Gutman.
Chapter 7. The Goal of Diversity: Access and Choice in Academia by Robert Zemsky.
Chapter 8. Barriers to Diversity and the Myth of Equal Access by Reginald Wilson.
Chapter 9. Improving Minority Postsecondary Outcomes: The Need for a Comprehensive Approach by Alan L. Ginsburg and Maureen A. McLaughlin.
Chapter 14. Needed: Creative Policy Ideas to Resolve the Competing Claims of Quality, Diversity, and Efficiency in Higher Education by William J. Byron, S.J.